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General practitioner
The neurotransmitter serotonin is often referred to as the "happiness hormone" as it has a major influence on our mood. Serotonin ensures our well-being and satisfaction. If there is too little serotonin, we are in a bad mood, lack motivation and are prone to depression. Find out here what other effects serotonin has on our body, how a serotonin deficiency affects us and how you can naturally increase your serotonin levels.
Let's start with a list of the most important facts about serotonin:
As a neurotransmitter, serotonin helps pass messages from one region of the brain to another. As it is found throughout the body, scientists believe that serotonin is involved in a variety of physical and psychological bodily functions. Of the approximately 40 million brain cells, most are directly or indirectly influenced by serotonin. This includes brain cells that control mood, sexual function and desire, appetite, sleep, memory and learning, temperature regulation and certain social behaviors.
Outside the brain, serotonin influences the cardiovascular system, the muscles and various areas of the endocrine system. Scientists have also discovered that serotonin plays a role in regulating the production of breast milk. A defect in the serotonin network could be the cause of sudden infant death syndrome.
As a neurotransmitter, serotonin influences almost all brain cells both directly and indirectly. The following is a list of the areas that scientists believe serotonin influences:
The largest proportion of serotonin is found in the digestive tract. There it regulates intestinal function and movement. It also ensures that the appetite decreases over the course of a meal.
The effect of serotonin on mood, anxiety and depression is generally well known. Illegal, mood-altering drugs such as ecstasy or LSD cause a massive increase in serotonin levels.
The third important function is the formation of blood clots. Serotonin is released by blood platelets in the event of a wound. The onset of vasoconstriction of the tiny arteries (arterioles) reduces blood flow and promotes the formation of blood clots.
When you eat something that is toxic or irritating to the digestive tract, more serotonin is produced in the intestines to prolong the transit time and expel the irritant through diarrhea. The resulting decrease in serotonin levels in the blood causes nausea by stimulating the corresponding region in the brain.
Studies show that a persistently high serotonin level in the bones increases osteoporosis.
Serotonin stimulates the areas of the brain that are responsible for sleep and wakefulness. So whether you sleep or not depends on the region that is being stimulated. And serotonin is the receptor used for this.
Low serotonin levels in an intoxicated state presumably contribute to the associated increase in libido. In contrast, taking medication that increases serotonin levels leads to a reduction in libido and sexual function.
One theory on the origins of depression focuses on the regeneration of cells in the brain - a process that some believe is mediated by serotonin and continues throughout our lives. Princeton neuroscientist Dr. Barry Jacobs argues that depression occurs when new brain cells are suppressed. This stress is said to be the most important trigger of depression. He suspects that common antidepressants (so-called serotonin reuptake inhibitors), which increase serotonin levels, help to stimulate the production of new brain cells. This leads to an improvement in depression.
Serotonin deficiency - it sounds as if someone simply produces too little of it. But it's not as simple as that.
In the following we use the terms serotonin deficiency and low serotonin levelsto indicate that one or more of these processes are taking place.
Dr. Datis Kharrazian, author of Why Isn't My Brain Working? ("Why Isn't My Brain Working?"), believes that long-term use of serotonin reuptake inhibitors leads to blood sugar imbalance, adrenal insufficiency, malnutrition and hormonal imbalances. Birth control pills can also be responsible for a serotonin deficiency.
In most cases, however, the cause is an unhealthy lifestyle.
As there is no way to measure serotonin levels in the brain, there are also no reliable methods available to quantitatively determine a serotonin deficiency.
The serotonin level in the blood, on the other hand, can be measured. However, this does not allow any conclusions to be drawn about the serotonin content in the brain.
Instead of blood or urine tests, statements on signs and symptoms are better indicators of an imbalanced serotonin balance in the brain.
Depression is the most widely known sign of low serotonin levels, but it is by no means the only one.
However, not all symptoms are so obvious. Low serotonin levels can also be accompanied by rather vague symptoms.
Examples of this are
A low serotonin level affects general health and personal life expectancy. A deficiency increases the risk of heart disease, dementia and Alzheimer's and can have a negative impact on the progression or severity of asthma, fibromyalgia, migraines and irritable bowel syndrome.
Many scientists believe that an imbalance in serotonin levels affects mood in a way that can lead to depression, but also to obsessive-compulsive disorder, anxiety, panic attacks and excessive outbursts of anger.
Sleep difficulties of any kind - falling asleep, sleeping through the night or disturbances in the deep sleep phases - can also be caused by a serotonin deficiency. Serotonin is a precursor of melatonin. This hormone is largely responsible for our internal clock. Of course, insomnia can also have many other causes. However, Dr. Kharrazian believes that insomnia is caused by an imbalance of serotonin when melatonin supplements are used as a treatment.
Serotonin syndrome is the result of excessive stimulation of the central nervous system and peripheral serotonin receptors. It can occur in connection with the intake of medication, illegal drugs or food supplements. Generally, it only occurs when two drugs that affect serotonin levels are taken at the same time, for example, drugs to treat a migraine together with antidepressants.
For example, if you take triptans for your migraine and at the same time a serotonin reuptake inhibitor to treat your depression, this can lead to serotonin overload. This also applies to taking corresponding substitute preparations, such as St. John's wort.
The problems often occur after taking a drug for the first time or after the dose has been increased. Such side effects can also occur if you combine older antidepressants (monoamine oxidase inhibitors, MAOIs) with newer serotonin reuptake inhibitors.
Carcinoid tumors can cause serotonin levels to rise sharply. These tumors are usually located in the digestive tract and lead to a higher release of serotonin. In most cases, they do not cause any symptoms and are only discovered during examinations due to other complaints.
Serotonin syndrome leads to excessive nerve activity. Symptoms occur within a few hours of taking the medication. Serotonin syndrome can be life-threatening.
In severe cases, serotonin syndrome can be life-threatening. High fever, cardiac arrhythmia, seizures and unconsciousness can occur.
Serotonin syndrome cannot be diagnosed by a single test. In addition, other conditions have similar symptoms, so a doctor will always rule these out before diagnosing serotonin syndrome.
After diagnosis, treatment focuses on reducing serotonin levels to a normal level. For less severe symptoms, it may be sufficient to simply discontinue the medication that triggered the symptoms. The serotonin level will then normalize on its own.
Severe side effects require treatment in hospital. Depending on the type and severity of the symptoms, medication is given to relax the muscles, regulate the heart rhythm and blood pressure or sometimes to suppress serotonin production.
The patient may be given oxygen or intravenous fluids to regulate the oxygen content of the blood or to treat the fever or dehydration.
You may have heard that bananas contain serotonin and that eating them increases serotonin levels.
Or turkey, which contains tryptophan, a precursor of serotonin.
This advice is certainly well-intentioned, but does not stand up to the reality test.
One obvious way to increase serotonin levels could simply be to eat the foods mentioned above. Some foods do indeed contain serotonin. Nevertheless, this does not increase the serotonin content in the brain, as it does not reach the brain.
Another option would be to consume more tryptophan-containing foods; tryptophan is a precursor of serotonin. And there are actually foods and some nutrients that can increase the tryptophan content.
Many protein-containing foods are good sources of tryptophan.
But the attempt to increase serotonin levels with tryptophan is an interesting paradox. Ironically, after eating a protein-rich meal, levels of both tryptophan and serotonin drop. Why is this? According to nutritionist Elizabeth Somer, when you eat a high-protein meal, you "flood the blood with both tryptophan and competing amino acids". And they all want to get to the brain. This means that only a small proportion of the tryptophan consumed actually reaches the brain - too little to boost serotonin levels.
In the course of her research at MIT, Dr. Judith J. Wurtman, co-author of The Serotonin Power Diet, discovered why people eat sweets or starchy carbohydrates to relieve depression, anxiety or anger.
The reason is quite simple: eating these products increases the serotonin level in the brain; after eating them, they simply feel happier.
She also discovered the key to how serotonin is synthesized together with food.
There are no serotonin-rich foods per se. However, strategically smart food intake leads to more tryptophan entering the brain, which leads to increased serotonin production.
It's not just about what you eat, but also how you eat it.
Until this discovery, the relationship between tryptophan, serotonin and food was a mystery.
However, the solution is surprisingly simple.
Dr. Wurtman found that an occasional meal of carbohydrates - without protein - eliminated the problem of mutually blocking substances for serotonin synthesis.
When you eat a carbohydrate-rich meal, the body triggers the release of insulin.* This causes the amino acids in the blood to be absorbed into the body, but not into the brain. Except - you guessed it! - tryptophan. According to Dr. Wurtman, the substance remains in the bloodstream at high levels after a meal of carbohydrates. This means that it can enter the brain unhindered and increase serotonin levels.
* Endothelial cells in the brain, which comprise the blood-brain barrier, have real receptors. This means that they have binding sites that are coupled to intracellular machinery and modulate their functions. These endothelial cells not only transport insulin, they are also influenced by it.
Insulin is a particularly well-studied example of how a hormone of the digestive tract can influence the blood-brain barrier. Insulin alters the transport rate of a number of substances across the blood-brain barrier, including the amino acid tryptophan (and thus the serotonin content in the brain).
So the solution to the dilemma of increasing serotonin levels through food is to eat a meal consisting only of carbohydrates?
Simple carbohydrates such as sugar and white flour promote a rapid increase in serotonin levels and are the fastest mood boosters. However, the effect only lasts for one or two hours. They are therefore not necessarily of great benefit.
Carbohydrates alone cannot compensate for dopamine or serotonin levels in serious illnesses with an associated deficiency. However, a nutrient-rich diet with healthy carbohydrates can help. When carbohydrate-containing foods are digested, the pancreas releases insulin into the blood. Insulin removes most amino acids from the blood. However, tryptophan, the precursor of serotonin, remains in the blood. Therefore, the path to the brain is now clear for tryptophan, where it can be converted to serotonin. Serotonin production is boosted more than dopamine production by eating carbohydrate-containing foods. Protein-containing foods that also contain carbohydrates usually contain phenylalanine. This amino acid is a precursor of tyrosine, which is converted to dopamine in the brain.
Carbohydrates therefore lead to an increase in tryptophan in the brain. More tryptophan means more serotonin. However, eating carbohydrates does not always increase serotonin levels. Some complex carbohydrates such as brown rice or beans are also good sources of protein. According to the Encyclopedia of Neuroscience, serotonin synthesis decreases when large amounts of amino acids are consumed. Simple carbohydrates, such as commercially available white bread or baked goods, lead to the release of insulin without adding protein to the body at the same time. Nevertheless, fresh fruit is often the better alternative.
Now, refined wheat is not our idea of healthy brain food. Nevertheless, it can't hurt to give the serotonin diet a try. This way you can find out whether it gives you the mood boost you were hoping for.
However, we recommend that you follow the principles of the serotonin diet and still avoid wheat and refined carbohydrates. Replace them with brain-healthy carbohydrates such as potatoes, root vegetables, fruit and other grains (not wheat) such as rice and oatmeal.
There are a handful of medicinal plants and foods that can help to naturally increase serotonin levels through a variety of interlocking mechanisms.
5-Hydroxytryptophan (5-HTP) is a natural derivative of the amino acid L-tryptophan. It has nootropic properties in the body and brain, as it is easily converted into serotonin. 5-HTP is not found in food, but is formed from tryptophan, also an amino acid. 5-HTP can be considered either an amino acid or a herbal supplement. It comes from the African black bean (Griffonia simplicifolia), an African shrub. The seeds contain 20 percent 5-HTP. We have categorized it as an amino acid as it is closely related to tryptophan.
The dietary supplement 5-HTP (5-hydroxy-L-tryptophan) is used to treat sleep disorders, depression, migraines, obesity and attention deficit disorder in children. It is a derivative of the amino acid tryptophan and is formed in the body itself from the tryptophan contained in beef, chicken, fish, dairy products and other protein-rich foods.
The reason why 5-HTP is suitable for treating all these different problems is that it is converted into two important brain substances - serotonin and melatonin - after ingestion.
In the brain, 5-HTP is converted into the neurotransmitter serotonin, which is involved in regulating mood, sleep and appetite.
The amino acid tryptophan is first converted to 5-HTP and then to serotonin. TPH1 and TPH2, the two enzymes responsible for the conversion of tryptophan to 5-HTP, are the slowest (rate-determining) enzymes in serotonin production.
5-HTP is easily and unhindered converted to serotonin without being biochemically inhibited.
Tryptophan competes with leucine, valine, tyrosine and isoleucine. All of these substances want to cross the blood-brain barrier through the large neutral amino acid (LNAA) receptors. 5-HTP does not compete with any other amino acid and can enter the brain unhindered. 5-HTP crosses the blood-brain barrier without receptors or channels. Serotonin, on the other hand, cannot cross the blood-brain barrier. Serotonin in other parts of the body (in the intestines, blood platelets, heart and liver) always remains separate from the serotonin produced in the brain.
5-HTP converts to serotonin both inside and outside the brain. While tryptophan is also used for protein synthesis and for conversion into niacin, 5-HTP is used exclusively for conversion into serotonin.
GABA (gamma aminobutyric acid) calms the nervous system and helps to treat complaints caused by overstimulated nerve pathways. These include anxiety, depression and insomnia.
The neurotransmitter plays an important role in our behavior, perception and the body's reaction to stress. Scientists suspect that GABA controls fear and anxiety when neurons are overstimulated. Low GABA levels have been linked to schizophrenia, depression, anxiety and sleep disorders.
Turmeric is a spice and contains the active ingredient curcumin, which easily crosses the blood-brain barrier and increases both serotonin and dopamine levels. Curcumin has great potential as a natural antidepressant as it increases the levels of two important neurotransmitters in the brain: serotonin and dopamine. Curcumin supplements have been shown to be as effective in treating depression as the popular serotonin reuptake inhibitor Prozac. This is particularly good news for the millions of sufferers for whom other antidepressants were ineffective or caused intolerable side effects.
A study published in the journal Metabolic Brain Disease in 2015 shows that curcumin regulates the gut-brain axis in irritable bowel syndrome by increasing serotonin levels of serotonin and certain neurotrophins (BDNF).
The adaptogen Rhodiola Rosea (rose root) causes anincrease in serotonin and dopamine levels. It improves the transport of tryptophan and 5-HTP into the brain. The body uses these two substances to produce serotonin. It also increases dopamine and serotonin activity in the brain by blocking the enzymatic breakdown of these substances by monoamine oxidases.
Rose root extracts also promote the transport of dopamine and serotonin precursors into the brain by increasing the permeability of the blood-brain barrier for these substances. In some studies, serotonin levels in the brain were increased by up to 30 percent with rose root extracts.
With the help of roseroot, low moods and depression are effectively prevented. A good mood and good spirits are maintained. Rhodiola rosea also helps to reduce stress naturally. The plant is considered a natural stress killer and, as an adaptogen, helps to increase the body's resistance to stress.
Vitamin D is considered a true artist for our health. Numerous studies have shown that vitamin D3 increases the production of serotonin and thus reduces symptoms of depression.
Norwegian doctors found that taking vitamin D3, especially in high quantities, improves the symptoms of depression. The production of serotonin (happiness hormone) is supported and the serotonin level increases significantly - by a factor of two to 30!
Caution: It is not only in winter that you can develop a vitamin D deficiency due to sun exposure. A deficiency can also occur in summer due to the constant use of sun cream or working indoors.
A brand new Canadian study shows that there is a strong link between gut health and certain brain functions (such as our mood). Probiotics may therefore also be able to help boost our mood.
Various studies show that St. John's wort extract can alleviate mild to moderate depression. There were fewer side effects than with conventional antidepressants. Other studies also show that the use of St. John's wort for various symptoms and illnesses works just as well as selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors. Researchers are not yet in complete agreement about the exact effect, but it is likely that the effect is related to the fact that St. John's wort extract inhibits the uptake of the neurotransmitters serotonin, dopamine and noradrenaline in a similar way to antidepressants. Another effect of St. John's wort can be seen in improved sleep patterns.
Caution: St. John's wort drops should not be taken together with other medications, as this could lead to interactions.
Dark chocolate has been a popular "brain booster" for some time, increasing serotonin levels in both the brain and the digestive tract. However, 95 percent of serotonin is found in the gut, not the brain! Dark chocolate can increase serotonin levels not only because of the serotonin and L-tryptophan it contains, but also because it contains carbohydrates in the form of sugar, which signal the body to produce more serotonin. However, the effect of sweets on serotonin levels is short-lived and usually lasts no longer than an hour or two.
According to a study in the "Journal of Chromatography A" from April 2012, chocolate with 85 percent cocoa content contains the most serotonin at 2.9 micrograms per gram; chocolate with a cocoa content of between 70 and 85 percent contains the highest proportion of the serotonin precursor L-tryptophan: at 13.3 micrograms per gram. You should therefore choose these two varieties if you want to do something for your serotonin levels.
Green tea is one of the healthiest drinks on the planet. It contains over 700 bioactive compounds including l-theanine. This naturally relaxing amino acid increases serotonin, dopamine and GABA (gamma-aminobutyric acid) levels in the brain. Green tea also contains the polyphenol epigallocatechin gallate (EGCG). This effective antioxidant protects the brain from oxidative damage. Much of the research into brain disorders, declining cognitive function, anxiety and depression suggests that the cause is inflammation triggered by free radicals. Antioxidants play a crucial role in preventing this. Drink a cup or two of green tea every day and reap the many health benefits, such as improving your mood.
Scientific research shows that people with depression often have lower levels of DHA (docosahexaenoic acid). This is an omega-3 fatty acid that is an essential structural component of the human brain. Eating DHA-rich foods therefore has a positive effect on your mood. Therefore, include oily cold-water fish such as salmon in your diet. These contain plenty of omega-3 fatty acids and can help to increase serotonin levels.
Salmon also contains valuable proteins that increase tryptophan levels. If possible, you should always choose wild salmon, as it contains far more omega-3 fatty acids.
Amaranth (foxtail) and quinoa have a lot in common, for example in terms of their history. These ancient crops are native to South America. They were cultivated by the Incas and are a staple food in many parts of the world.
Try it for yourself: Amaranth, buckwheat, millet and quinoa are seeds with a grainy taste and properties. They are healthy, protein-rich carbohydrates. A certain amount of the right carbohydrates is important for increasing serotonin levels.
These grain-like seeds also contain important B vitamins. As already mentioned, B vitamins play a crucial role in healthy brain function and in the formation of all neurotransmitters, including serotonin.
You make an important contribution to maintaining your intestinal health by eating fermented foods. This is also an excellent way to boost your mood. Fermented foods such as yoghurt, kefir and unpasteurized sauerkraut contain natural psychobiotics. These are probiotics that create a healthy balance between good and bad gut bacteria.
Too many bad gut bacteria lead to toxic by-products (lipopolysaccharides) that are harmful to the brain in many ways. For example, they lower serotonin levels and can trigger depression.
Stress, sugar, artificial sweeteners, prescription drugs, chlorinated tap water, parasites, inflammation and even antibacterial hand soap can affect the balance of gut flora.
Serotonin is commonly known as a neurotransmitter in the brain. However, it is estimated that up to 90 percent of the body's serotonin is produced in the digestive tract. Changes in these peripheral serotonin levels have been linked to conditions such as irritable bowel syndrome, cardiovascular disease and osteoporosis. A new study at Caltech, published in the journal Cell on April 9, shows that certain bacteria in the gut are important for the production of peripheral serotonin. Certain species from the gut microbiome stimulate endocrine gut cells to produce serotonin. The host cells and microbes thus work together.
The stimulation of intestinal serotonin leads to more serotonin in the large intestine. In addition, more of it is absorbed by the blood platelets and distributed in the body via the bloodstream.
A high-fiber diet with lots of fermented foods leads to healthy gut flora, which is crucial for serotonin levels within the gut-brain axis. Supplemental probiotics can also be beneficial.
Exercise makes an important contribution to improving your mood. Studies have shown that regular exercise can treat depression as effectively as antidepressants or psychotherapy. In the past, it was thought that exercise sessions over several weeks were necessary before the effects on depression became visible. However, new research from the University of Texas at Austin shows that even a single 40-minute exercise session can have an immediate effect on mood.
Numerous studies confirm that exercise increases both serotonin production and the release of the neurotransmitter. Aerobic exercise in particular, such as walking, running, cycling and swimming, is best at boosting serotonin levels. But yoga also works.
Most people work indoors: poorly lit offices, factories or stores. Even after work, we often stay indoors: either in our own home or at someone else's house. And when we're not in the office or at home, most of us are in the car. But even there, we don't get much direct daylight. So where do we go then? Somewhere where we spend even more time indoors.
That's how many of us live these days. Almost always indoors.
A study by McGill University in Montreal looked at the question of how much daylight a normal person gets. On average, it was 20 minutes per day.
With so little bright daylight, your internal clock is out of sync. As a result, the body does not produce enough serotonin.
The solution is simple: restart your internal clock and make sure that it never gets out of sync again. If you do this, you will produce more serotonin.
Your internal clock is controlled by the light-dark cycle of the day. Bright light stimulates the body's serotonin production. This affects your mood, your appetite and your feelings. In darkness or dim light, the body converts serotonin into melatonin - you become tired and sleepy.
At the moment, your light-dark cycle is probably out of balance. You are not getting enough light and are spending too much time in the dark.
Restore balance by soaking up natural, bright daylight every day. Once the balance has been restored, your internal clock will also restart and you will produce more serotonin.
If you don't want to take serotonin reuptake inhibitors or they don't work for you, you can try to increase your serotonin levels naturally. Make sure you make the right food choices, choose appropriate supplements and adopt a healthy lifestyle.
An important reminder: Do not stop taking any medication on your own. Always talk to your doctor first.
Niacin (vitamin B3) plays an important role in serotonin production. The results of a study published in 2007 in the "Journal of Psychiatry and Neuroscience" show that a niacin deficiency and a deficiency of the precursor tryptophan are associated with a higher risk of depression. Eat plenty of foods containing niacin. In this way you can increase your tryptophan levels. Both together lead to an increase in serotonin levels. Niacin and all other B vitamins help the body to produce serotonin.
According to Edelberg, pyridoxine, better known as vitamin B6, supports an increase in serotonin levels in a special way. This vitamin plays a role in the conversion of tryptophan into serotonin. A B6 deficiency inhibits this process and may therefore increase the risk of mood disorders.
Like vitamins B3 and B6, folic acid (folate or vitamin B9) also supports the body's serotonin production. The University of Maryland Medical Center makes it clear that folic acid plays a key role in many brain functions as well as mental health. Some studies suggest that too little folic acid may also contribute to depression.
A magnesium deficiency can have serious consequences, including low serotonin levels. That's right: Magnesium deficiency makes you sad. But magnesium and serotonin don't just regulate your mood. They affect your physiology in ways you've probably never thought about. Magnesium fulfills many important functions in the body, for example in the muscles, in enzyme function and in the production of proteins. It is also involved in the conversion of the amino acid tryptophan into the neurotransmitter serotonin.
Zinc is another vital mineral with an antidepressant effect. Zinc is normally present in high concentrations in the brain and supports many functions there. It increases the uptake of serotonin in certain areas of the brain and may also be suitable for treating severe depressive disorders.
Zinc deficiency is very common; it probably affects two billion people worldwide. The risk is highest for children, the elderly and vegetarians.
According to James M. Greenblatt, a physician who has also written for the Psychology Today website, vitamin D activates genes in the body that are responsible for the release of neurotransmitters, including serotonin. A vitamin D deficiency can lead to a drop in serotonin levels in the brain, possibly contributing to the development of depression. Increased vitamin D intake can boost serotonin production.
Omega-3 fatty acids are mainly found in oily cold-water fish such as salmon or mackerel. They are among the most important nutrients for healthy brain function and overall health. They are essential for building healthy brain cells and promote the formation of new brain cells. People with low serotonin levels often also have lower omega-3 levels.
Omega-3 fatty acids contain DHA (docosahexaenoic acid) and EPA (eicosapentaenoic acid). Both acids have an influence on serotonin. DHA makes serotonin receptors more receptive, while EPA increases the release of serotonin from neurons.
DHA is generally considered to be the most important omega-3 fatty acid for brain function. Low DHA levels are associated with depression, bipolar disorder, schizophrenia, memory loss and Alzheimer's disease.
You would get enough omega-3 fatty acids if you ate wild salmon every day.
As a result, there are very few people who do not benefit from omega-3 supplements. It is estimated that 70 percent of the population suffers from an omega-3 deficiency.
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Yano, J. M., Yu, K., Donaldson, G. P., Shastri, G. G., Ann, P., Ma, L. et al. (2015, April). Indigenous bacteria from the gut microbiota regulate host serotonin biosynthesis. Cell, 161(2):264-76, doi: 10.1016/j.cell.2015.02.047.
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Bhutani, M. K., Bishnoi, M. & Kulkarni, S. K. (2009, March). Anti-depressant like effect of curcumin and its combination with piperine in unpredictable chronic stress-induced behavioral, biochemical and neurochemical changes. Pharmacology, Biochemistry and Behavior, 92(1):39-43, doi: 10.1016/j.pbb.2008.10.007
Yu, Y., Wu, S., Li, J., Wang, R., Xie, X., Yu, X. et al. (2015, February). The effect of curcumin on the brain-gut axis in rat model of irritable bowel syndrome: involvement of 5-HT-dependent signaling. Metabolic Brain Disease, 30(1):47-55, doi: 10.1007/s11011-014-9554-z
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